The Making of
Lithium
Lithium is abundant but rarely concentrated. Too reactive to exist as the pure metal, it is always locked inside a mineral or dissolved in salt water — at a fraction of a percent, beside look-alike ions almost exactly its size. So making it is less about digging than about separating one restless metal from everything chemically like it.
Every figure on this page is sourced — the notes at the end say where each one comes from.
You are almost certainly within arm's reach of some right now.
The journey, whole
Two starting points, one destination
Lithium reaches a battery by one of two completely different journeys — baking rock, or evaporating water — that meet only at the very end, as a single purified lithium chemical.
Lithium is unusual in that its two main routes share almost no steps: one is hot, fast-ish and chemical; the other is cold, slow and driven by the sun. The overview below shows that fork honestly rather than pretending the process is a single line. Watch the colour: mixed, impure material stays in the blues and warm grey, and gold is held back for the one thing that matters — the pure lithium at the end.
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Nowhere is lithium found as lithium
It always arrives locked inside a mineral or dissolved in water — and which of those you start with decides the entire process that follows.
There are two sources that matter commercially, and they could hardly be more different. The first is hard rock — coarse igneous rock called pegmatite, carrying the mineral spodumene, a lithium-aluminium silicate that holds between about two and four percent lithium. Rock is dug, crushed and floated up to a concentrate of roughly six percent lithium oxide, and Australia mines more of it than anywhere else. Some sister minerals, such as petalite, are prized less for their lithium than for the way lithia lowers a glaze's thermal expansion — which is why they end up in heat-proof glass and ceramics.
The second source is brine — the salty water beneath salt lakes, or salars. Here lithium is already dissolved as a free ion, a few hundred milligrams in every litre, floating in a soup of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium. The richest sit in the high, dry "Lithium Triangle" of Chile, Argentina and Bolivia. Brine needs no crushing, but it hides a harder problem: separating the lithium from everything dissolved alongside it, magnesium above all.
Two more sources are rising. Clays such as hectorite and jadarite, and unconventional geothermal and oilfield brines — waste water from energy production, like the lithium-rich Smackover brines under Arkansas — were long uneconomic but are now in development. And there is a source that is not geological at all: spent batteries, which carry two to seven percent lithium, richer than any rock in the ground. Seawater holds vast lithium too, but at 0.17 milligrams a litre it is far too dilute to pay.
Spodumene (hard rock)
Pegmatite mineral, ~1.9–3.7% Li, concentrated to about 6% Li₂O before refining. Sister mineral petalite feeds heat-proof glass.
Salar brine
Dissolved Li⁺ at ~200–1,400 mg/L, high in magnesium. The high, dry Lithium Triangle of Chile, Argentina and Bolivia holds most of it.
Lithium clays & new brines
Hectorite and jadarite clays; geothermal and oilfield brines (the Smackover play under Arkansas). Long uneconomic, now in development.
Spent batteries (secondary)
2–7% lithium — richer than any ore in the ground. The recycling feedstock, and the closest thing to mining-free lithium.
How it's made — the two routes
Both routes fight chemistry, not rock. In brine the enemy is magnesium — its ion is almost exactly lithium's size, so nature will not sort them for you. In hard rock the effort goes on shedding aluminium, iron, calcium and sodium. Either way the task is the same: separating lithium from neighbours that look almost like it.
The two routes look nothing alike. Hard rock is a matter of weeks — a hot, chemical, factory-style process. Brine is a matter of a year or two — a cold, patient, weather-driven one. Set side by side, they show that the same metal can be won two entirely different ways.
Lithium and magnesium are so alike that the trick is how they hold water. The two ions are almost the same size (Li 0.069 nm, Mg 0.072 nm), so simple sieving fails — but magnesium clings to its shell of water molecules almost four times as tightly (hydration energy −1,922 vs −515 kJ/mol). Ion-sieves exploit exactly that: the gate is too small for a magnesium ion wearing its water coat, so lithium slips through. Modern lithium chemistry turns a three-thousandths-of-a-nanometre size difference into a working separation.
Baked out of the rock
- Crush, grind & floatConcentrate the ore to a spodumene of about 6% lithium oxide.
~6% Li₂O - RoastHeat flips spodumene from a tight crystal (α) into an open one (β) that acid can penetrate — the rock literally cracks as it transforms. Without the flip, acid barely touches it, which is why the kiln comes before the acid.
1,040–1,100°C - Acid bakeMix the β-spodumene with concentrated sulfuric acid, turning the lithium into a soluble sulfate.
H₂SO₄ ~250°C - Leach & purifyDissolve in water and drop out the sodium, aluminium, iron, calcium and magnesium by precipitation.
- Convert to battery gradeAdd soda ash for lithium carbonate, or caustic soda for hydroxide, then re-purify. Exact reagents vary refinery to refinery.
>99.5% purity
Evaporated out of the water
- Pump to pondsDraw the brine from beneath the salar into shallow evaporation ponds.
- Evaporate in the sunOver a year or more the water leaves and salts crystallise out roughly in order of solubility — common salt, then potassium, then magnesium — while the lithium concentrates. The sun does what a furnace does in Route A.
12–24 months ~6,000 mg/L - Clean upAdd lime to strip magnesium and sulfate, then soda ash to remove calcium.
lime + soda ash - PrecipitateMore soda ash drops the lithium out as carbonate, redissolved and reprecipitated until pure enough for a battery. Even the best brines recover only about half the lithium present.
~50% recovery >99.5% purity
Route B′ — direct lithium extraction (the modern shortcut)
A sorbent, membrane or electrode grabs lithium ions straight from the brine and lets the rest flow past — hours–days, not months, recovery of 75–99.99%, and far less land and water because there are no evaporation ponds. It costs more energy, and today only aluminium-based adsorbents run at commercial scale — but DLE is the technology most likely to reshape how brine lithium is made.
Nine tonnes in ten go into a battery
Nine in ten tonnes of lithium now go into a battery — but the metal had a working life in glass, grease and medicine long before the electric car.
The battery share is overwhelming and still growing: about 88 percent of all lithium goes into rechargeable cells for electric cars, grid and home storage, phones and laptops. Each cell pairs its lithium cathode with an anode of near-pure graphite. Most of the rest quietly does older jobs — a little lithia lets cookware shrug off sudden heat, lithium greases stay put in hot machinery, and lithium carbonate has stabilised mood in bipolar disorder for decades.
- 88% Batteries — EVs, grid & home storage, phones, laptops
- 4% Ceramics & glass
- 2% Lubricating greases
- 1% Air treatment (desiccants)
- 1% Continuous casting mould flux
- 1% Medical
- 3% Other uses
Australia digs it; China makes it usable
The map of who mines lithium and the map of who refines it are two different maps — and the gap between them is the whole geopolitical story.
The world mined about 290,000 tonnes of lithium (measured as the metal itself) in 2025, up roughly a third on the year before, as new mines in Africa and South America came on stream. Australia leads mining by a wide margin, almost all of it hard rock. But the ranking that matters more is refining, and there China is dominant: it turns out around seventy percent of the world's finished lithium chemicals. A tonne of Australian spodumene very often becomes a usable lithium salt only after a journey to a Chinese refinery.
The price rollercoaster
Battery-grade lithium carbonate, annual average, real US$/tonne. Source: USGS MCS 2026 (Benchmark Mineral Intelligence).
Not running out — building fast enough
Lithium's problem isn't running out — it's building fast enough, cleanly enough, while the price swings wildly enough to scare off the very people who would build it.
There is plenty of lithium. Reserves stand near 37 million tonnes and wider resources at perhaps 150 million — decades of supply at any plausible demand. The difficulty is speed and steadiness. Demand is forecast to grow roughly fivefold by 2040, faster than any other critical mineral, yet the price has behaved like a fever chart: it ran from about $11,700 a tonne to $63,700 and back below $10,000 in the space of three years. A mine takes the better part of a decade to build, and no one wants to commit that capital into a price that might halve before the plant opens. The bottleneck isn't the ground; it's the confidence.
Neither way of making lithium is clean, and they are dirty differently. Hard rock is carbon- and energy-heavy — roasting at 1,100°C, mostly on fossil power; one life-cycle study puts it near 58 tonnes of CO₂ for every tonne of lithium carbonate. Brine is water- and land-hungry — evaporation can lose hundreds of cubic metres of water per tonne of product, spread across some of the driest inhabited land on Earth, where that water is exactly what local communities cannot spare. Choosing a route is partly choosing which impact you would rather have.
Two shifts might ease the tension without resolving it. Direct extraction promises brine lithium with a fraction of the land and water and none of the two-year wait — but it draws more energy, and outside one adsorbent family it is still being proven at scale. And recycling turns the waste problem into a resource one: a spent battery is richer in lithium than any ore, yet only about a third of lithium batteries are recycled today. Done at scale, recycling could meet a large share of future demand while skipping mining's carbon entirely — the closest thing the industry has to a way out of its own dilemma.